Alleviation: An International Journal of Nutrition, Gender & Social Development, ISSN 2348-9340
Volume 3, Number 3 (2016) : 32-36
©Arya PG College, Panipat & Business Press India Publication, Delhi
www.aryapgcollege.com, www.apcjournals.com

Science and Gender: A Retrospective

1. Kiran Bamel*,2. Seema Talwar & 3. Pamil Tayal
1 & 2 Assistant Professors, Department of Botany, Shivaji College, University of Delhi < ( Delhi), India
3 Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Venkateshwar College, University of Delhi (Delhi), India
*Email: kbamel@yahoo.in

Introduction

Ancient world

Women have contributed significantly in science from the ancient times. Investigators with focus on gender and science have highlighted the scientific achievements of women, the barriers they have come across, and the strategies implemented to have their work peer-reviewed and accepted in major scientific journals and other publications. Since early days of civilization, women used to work with men in all spheres of life. From sowing seeds in their farms to hunting for their food in the wild, there was no area that was left behind by the women folk. They were equal partners if not more to the men of their time with an added responsibility of giving birth and rearing their children and helping in perpetuation of their races. They commanded equality and were respected like goddesses. There were many women in science who were highly regarded and admired for their contributions. The earliest known female scientist was a chief physician in ancient Egypt named Merit-Ptah (2700 BCE). In the 4th century BCE, to practice legally in Athens, Agnodike became the first female physician. The great healer in ancient Greece was Agamede. A natural philosopher who predicted eclipses was Aglaonike, Theano pupil of Pythagoras was a mathematician, and a physician (Anonymous 2006). Mary the Jewess invented several chemical instruments. Hypatia of Alexandria (350–415 AD) wrote texts on geometry, algebra and astronomy and invented instruments like hydrometer, and astrolabe (Anonymous 2006). Dorotea Bucca an Italian physician also held a chair of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna for over forty years from 1390. Abella, , Alessandra Giliani, Margarita, Mercuriade (14th century), Calrice di Durisio (15th century), Jacobina Félicie, Constance Calenda, Constanza, Maria Incarnata and Thomasia de Mattio were other women from Italy who contributed to field of medicine (Howard 2006). That was the era when females were accoladed for their technological accomplishments and accumulation of vast knowledge in various areas.

Middle Age

Despite the success of some women in the Middle Ages, cultural biases were prominent and this affected their education and participation in science. For example a Christian scholar St. Thomas Aquinas wrote referring to a woman that a woman is mentally incapable of holding a position of authority. Maria Winkelmann was a famous German astronomer. Most of her life, she made some original contributions (Discovery of a comet) working as an assistant to her husband. After her husband’s death, at Berlin Academy, when she applied for a position as assistant astronomer, she was denied the post. They had a fear that they would establish a bad example by hiring a woman (Schiebinger 1992). This was the reflection of the obstacles faced by women to be accepted in scientific work, which was considered to be chiefly for men.

Modern Era (Late 19th and Early 20th Century)

In Europe, during the latter part of the 19th century, there was a rise in equal opportunity in education for girls similar to that provided to boys. Women's colleges were established and produced a large number of women who went on for Ph.Ds in science. There was a comparative spurt of eminent women scientists, like Marie Skłodowska-Curie, the first woman to win two Nobel prize in 1903 (Physics) and in 1911 (Chemistry), both for her work on radiation. Alice Perry is the first woman to graduate with a degree in civil engineering (Institution of Engineers of Ireland 1922). Lise Meitner, Emmy Noether, Ellen Swallow Richards played a major role in the discovery of nuclear fission, revolutionising abstract algebra and "christening of a new science" – "oekology" (Ecology) respectively.
New opportunities opened up for the women scientists with World War II. Some women were able to work in jobs they might not otherwise have accessed because there was a shortage of male workers. Women in other fields also searched for opportunities to apply their expertise to the war effort. Many times, Nobel Prize and Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to women between 1901 and 2010. But still the women’s presence in the scientific world was questioned. In the early 1980s, two concepts for understanding the statistics behind women in science were put forth by Margaret Rossiter. She gave the terms "hierarchical segregation" and "territorial segregation." The former term describes the phenomenon in which the further one goes up the chain of command in the field, the smaller the presence of women. The latter describes the phenomenon in which women "cluster in scientific disciplines" (Schiebinger 2001).
Statistics demonstrate the challenges faced by women in science and also to track positive changes of employment opportunities and incomes for women in science (Schiebinger 2001). Around half of those who gain doctoral degrees in science and engineering are females in the United States and Europe — but barely one-fifth of full professors are women. Women are not invited in prominent numbers to sit on the scientific advisory boards of start-up companies.
Women face even more difficulties in Spain. In comparisons to the men, the women with comparable age, experience and publication records are 2.5 times less likely to rise to the rank of full professor. The gender bias is critical in mature democracies and won’t be resolved by the flick of a master switch. As in most professions, it is locked in place by male dominance at all the levels of decision-making that affect academic careers (Moss-Racusin et al 2012 & Reuben et al 2014).
The condition of female scientists is even worse in the developing countries. Though women are almost half of the mankind, the status of women in society is inferior to that of men. What to talk about science education in countries like India, even education in any field was a distant dream for a larger section of women due to gender discrimination and inequality. This discrimination against women in India and other developing countries has denied women the possibilities for education and employment on par with males. Despite of the fact that women contribute a lot to the national development and well-being of the family (Child rearing and home keeping), they are taken for granted and worst still, viewed with cynicism. The traditional orthodox mind set prevents women from moving out of their homes and more so opt for courses like science (Particularly physical sciences and mathematics) and technology, which are considered as being more in the male domain. And those who brave their ways to do so, do not get further equal opportunities and smooth career path, thanks to the notorious ‘glass ceiling’.
A study carried out to assess the performance of Indian women biological scientists on the basis of publications in 38 high impact journals (Impact factor 5 and above) suggested that majority of the papers from India had men as the corresponding/senior authors and only 14.3 per cent had women. Women seldom receive awards that are open to both the sexes. Only 2 awards (8%) have gone to women. Bhatnagar prize for young scientists was instituted in 1958 by CSIR. It is one of the most prestigious awards in natural sciences. Women received less than 2.5 per cent of awards (Bal 2004). In India, we should make efforts to get more women to study science and technology and also ensure that those who study are able to pursue a career in science and technology.
Reasons for Gender Inequality
Gender inequality is one of the most fundamental problems faced in developing countries. The initial enrolment rate of boys and girls at the primary educational level is itself discriminatory. Thereafter, the overall schooling at the next educational level is significantly lower for female children in comparison to male children.
Why has the progress stalled? Of the several reasons, childcare is one major factor that blocks the career of many women. Although female students may possess stronger competence, the hirability of male will likely be higher than women due to the gender bias. The inequalities also extend to salaries. In the European Union, female scientists earned on average between 25 per cent and 40 per cent less than male scientists in the public sector in 2006. Of the 1,300 or so, people who responded, 52 per cent of women said that they had encountered gender bias during their careers, compared with just 2 per cent of men (Reuben et al 2014 & Bal 2004).
Remedial Approaches
How to Attain Gender Equity in Science Classroom
A number of approaches are required to solve the problem of science inequality by addressing the issue. A well crafted curriculum, higher availability of after-school tutoring will help to eliminate the stigma of math and science as being too difficult (Anonymous 2008). Emphasis on the scientific components of a general education would help students of all backgrounds to explore their likings in the science (Shen 2013, Cell Associates 2010 and Dreze & Gita 2001). Mother’s literacy significantly enhances the probability of school enrolment among girls.
Gender bias can be subtle such as when examples in textbooks pre-define gender roles or may be overt, such as when different expectations are put on boys and girls. When addressing the class, a gender neutral language must be used. Group work should be done without gender separation. There should be no discrimination while assigning roles to students (Sudarshan 2000).
How to Attain Gender Equity in Science Research
At the institutional level, several European research agencies and institutions have special funding programmes for women, allowing them to establish their own labs. Nature made a public challenge to itself by reporting that only 14 per cent of its reviewers and 19 per cent of its invited comment and world view authors were females and promised to improve. Online platform Academia Net created by the Stuttgart-based Robert Bosch Foundation in Germany in cooperation with Spektrum der Wissen¬schaft, the German edition of Scientifict gives a web presence to high-achieving female scientists. Similarly, in India also several government and private organizations Like DBT, DST, UGC, INSA etc. Maulana Azad National Scholarship Scheme for Meritorious Girl Students belonging to Minorities and Fair and Lovely Foundation Scholarship Program for Women in India, 2014 are offering fellowships and grants to women who have had break in their careers and after a break want to pursue scientific careers.
Conclusions
It can concluded that women have made advances as scientists and engineers, with a handful of them heads of universities and chief executive officers in scientific or engineering companies. The problem with this development is that only a "few" women have progressed to the top of these fields rather than "roughly half" which is their number in the general population. Right education policies, socio-economic development, and the determination of the woman herself to raise her above all the obstacles would definitely help in bridging the gender gap.
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